Religion, identity and mental health

Identity Process Theory (IPT) was introduced to the UK community of social psychologists in the 1980s (Breakwell, 1983, 1986). It has been very successful as a conceptual framework for understanding identity processes and for developing applied research with significant practical applications. For example IPT has been applied to understanding and improving the effects of inter-group conflict, prejudice and ageing, with religious and spiritual factors often being heavily implicated.

However, attending the 2013 congress of the IAPR in Lausanne, Switzerland, I became keenly aware that the IPT framework was unknown to psychologists of religion both in North America and in continental Europe, and indeed generally outside the UK.

This lack of awareness seems to apply particularly to psychologists of religion – not to social psychologists in general. The purpose of this essay is to raise awareness of IPT in the international community of psychologists of religion, exploring with examples why an awareness of this theoretical framework could be useful for us all.

What is IPT and what are its chief features compared to other theories of identity?

Breakwell’s Identity Process Theory (IPT) (1983, 1986, 2004, 2010) takes the important step of viewing identity as a process. This contrasts with the Eriksonian view of identity of something which is achieved, and once achieved, normally unchanged (Erikson, 1963; Marcia et al, 1993). Other identity theories focus on the adoption of identities based on social group membership or roles: outstanding is Social Identity Theory (SIT) (Tajfel & Turner, 1986) which explores the consequences of self-categorisation as a member of a group, examining in-group favouritism and related effects. In Breakwell’s view, identity is an ongoing process, involving constant self-monitoring, and assimilation of and accommodation to the social context. Though dynamic, the content of identity is structured and hierarchical. Elements vary in centrality, value and salience. Rather boldly, Breakwell sees no important distinction between “social” elements (group memberships, roles etc) and “individual” elements (values, beliefs etc). Changes in social context can call forth changes in identity. An important feature of IPT is the notion of threat to identity. Threats to identity are unpleasant, and will trigger coping. Threats to esteem, efficacy, distinctiveness or continuity trigger coping responses of any kind (thoughts, actions etc), pitched at intrapersonal, interpersonal, intragroup or intergroup levels.

IPT offers a framework for examining individual coping processes as identity develops in changing social contexts. Important principles are self-esteem, self-efficacy, distinctiveness and continuity. Belonging, meaning and coherence are further motivational factors that have been suggested in recent work (Vignoles, Chryssochou & Breakwell, 2002; Jaspal & Cinnirella, 2010).

For example Jaspal & Cinirella (2010) interviewed young Muslim men in the UK coping with incompatible, mutually threatening identities: being both Muslim and gay. Emerging themes included attempts to make sense of sexual identity, using religious discourses to explain sexual identity, using British identity to explain sexual identity (“it’s easier to be gay here”), and fear of divine retribution. Grappling with the enormous central moral-religious dilemma highlighted the importance of coherence. For instance, in an attempt to achieve coherence, one participant imposed value on each of his identities: “...I need to be a better Muslim” (Interviewer) “And what does it mean to be a better Muslim?” “Well not gay for starters”. Others achieved coherence by attributing their sexual identity to G-d’s decision-making: “I know that Allah loves me and he is the perfect creator”. The real sinners, then, are those who disapprove of those who have been created gay, and the “identity-threatening position ‘sinner’ is eschewed by redefining what constitutes a ‘real’ sin”. These manoeuvres illustrate the importance of meaning-making, and coping with threat while achieving coherence and self-esteem.

In the descriptions and discussions which follow, we will consider ways in which religion can be implicated coping with threats to identity. Although originally based on social identity theory, role theory, Eriksonian and other perspectives on identity, we will consider and compare with interpretations derived from IPT.

We start with a piece of work offering a critical response to Fowler -based views of faith development, and which argues strongly for a view of identity as a dynamic process, involving lifelong responses to threat. Coyle (2012) proposed an IPT perspective for examining personal religious change. Faith development theory involves an invariant sequence of fundamental underlying structures that shape development and that are universal and independent of culture (Fowler, 1981). Using Piagetian, Eriksonian and other developmental frameworks, Fowler has made important suggestions about religious differences and religious change. Coyle suggests less emphasis on invariant stages in development, giving room for better understanding of personal efforts after faith and meaning. Coyle offers a case study of identity threat, a recently divorced man Steve, devoted to his career central to his identity and self-worth. He is made redundant and his hopes for a new job are repeatedly roused and disappointed. He begins to re-evaluate priorities and purpose in life as he re-shapes his commitments to his family, starting to enjoy time with his children instead of resenting it. He starts going to church with his ex-wife, something he has not done since the early years of his marriage. He begins to reflect on his life, re-evaluating his priorities and values, and wondering about the purpose of his life, including, to his surprise, the ‘God stuff’. Faith development theory does not accommodate these profound changes very appropriately. An IPT perspective suggests the usefulness of examining the details of the conditions and processes of transformations in faith. Coyle argues that life-events which challenge beliefs central to identity, feedback from actions in response to identity threats, assimilation and accommodation, and the reworking of the constituents of identity in line with relevant motivational principles such as belonging, efficacy and meaning, are all IPT concepts which could be usefully imported into the study of faith development. This process-focussed approach fits more appropriately around Steve’s story than attempts to identify the developmental stages into which Steve’s struggles might fit.

Religious identity and strategies for protecting and enhancing well-being (Abu Rayya; Steele; Blaine & Crocker; Breakwell) – religious vs ethnic id (Hussain & Bhushan)

Religious vs spiritual id (see beginning and end of chapter)

Salience and study and coping (Parg et al – possibly L et al, 2000)

Tiliopoulis & McVittie patterns of identity salience

Walters & Auton-Cuff: spirituality and coping with threats to id

Heath: centrality of spirituality in coping - womanism

Language and religious id: belonging and continuity (Jaspal & Coyle; Glinert). Ritual and id, belonging and continuity (Loewenthal & Al-Sulaim)

Shaffir & Hastings – threats to belief and belief salience

Vignoles et al: self-esteem, efficacy, distinctiveness and continuity in the construction of id

Ganzevoort et al (re-refer Jaspal & Cinn) religious factors in promoting and coping with threats to ID

Deconversion (Shaffir; Streib & Keller)

Spiritual abuse: coherence - Arterburn & Felton, 2001; Gubi & Jacobs, 2009).

Important principles re religion and ID, from IPT: Jaspal & Cinn 2012

Identity Process Theory: Identity, Social Action and Social Change [Hardcover]

Rusi Jaspal (Editor), Glynis M. Breakwell (Editor) Cambridge, CUP, 2014.

Loewenthal 2012 head covering and id paper