Religious ritual and well-being

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Applied Jewish Values in Social Sciences and Psychology

Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

Loewenthal

Kate Miriam

Department of Psychology, Royal Holloway

University of London

Egham, UK

Loewenthal

Kate Miriam

Glyndwr University

Wrexham, Wales, UK

Loewenthal

Kate Miriam

New York University in London

London, Wales, UK

Loewenthal

Kate Miriam

Heythrop College

University of London

London, Wales, UK

Dein

Simon

Department of Psychology, Royal Holloway

University of London

Egham, UK

Dein

Simon

Glyndwr University

Address Wrexham, Wales, UK

Abstract Contrary to the typically negative view of ritual found in key psychological texts, this chapter draws on a new trend according to which religious ritual offers a range of positive mental health benefits, from reduced anxiety to meaning in life and sense of community. Adopting a phenomenological perspective, it examines two key rituals: the tranquillity and fulfilment respondents ascribed to Sabbath observance and the strengthening of identity from wearing a headdress for Jewish and Muslim women.

Keywords Ritual - Sabbath observance - Head covering - Spirituality - Identity

Chapter 8

Kate Miriam Loewenthal and Simon Dein

1 Is there more to ritual than mere habit? Religious ritual has had a bad press from 3 ry, notably from two of the century’s most 4 Freud and Maslow. Freud’s (1907) paper Obsessive 5 tices offered compelling descriptions of similarities 6 religious practices in that both involve a 7 when the ritual is not performed, assuaged by 8 driver for both obsessive actions and religious 9 gestion that religion was a collective neurosis has 10 study of ritual. If one follows Freud’s argument, 11 in place by the mechanism of anxiety reduction. 12 exposed as irksome and pointless—a nuisance.

K. M. Loewenthal () Department of Psychology, Royal Holloway, University Glyndwr University, Wrexham, Wales, UK New York University in London, London, UK Heythrop College, University of London, London, UK S. Dein Division of Psychiatry, Faculty of Brain Sciences, University Durham University, Durham, UK M. Ben-Avie et al. (eds.), Applied Jewish Values in Social DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-21933-2_8 psychology in the twentieth centueloquent and influential psychologists, Actions and Religious Pracbetween obsessive actions and self-perpetuating cycle of anxiety arousal the performance of the ritual. The ritual is anxiety. Freud’s further sugserved to inhibit serious empirical religious ritual is at best habit held Once this truth is exposed, ritual is

of London, Egham, UK

College London, London, UK

Sciences and Psychology,

Eloquent derogation of ritual 14 and Peak Experience: “Religion 15 at the extreme becomes entirely 16 and in the truest meaning of the 17 illumination, the great awakening, 18 whole thing, are forgotten, lost, 19 ligion…finally may become the 20 religious experiencer.” Maslow’s sentiments are in line AQ1 22 ality in the late twentieth and early 23 2005). The spirituality ethos 24 riences in the individual, in 25 agreed, divinely originated moral 26 well as feelings and experiences. In contrast to Freud and Maslow, 28 religious ritual offers a range of It has been suggested that 30 aid and comfort by a deity when 31 world. Rituals can reduce anxiety 32 expression (Benson and Stark 33 in life, foster personal identity AQ2 34 son 1963). Rituals can serve as 35 enhancing social organisation and 36 Jacobs’ (1992) observation based 37 mental disturbance via its cathartic 38 tancing. Victor Turner (1975) 39 the pursuit of resolving conflicts 40 ritual of confession common to 41 tive way of achieving catharsis From a religious point of view 43 the believer the social and Current empirical work on 45 firms these social-scientific claims: 46 of religious coping which result 47 under stress. Recently there has been a strong 49 haviour from the phenomenological 50 examining some religious rituals 51 riential accounts of ritual.

The First Study: Sabbath

53 In the first study to be described 54 The specifics of observance can 55 the Sabbath (Shabbat/Shabbos) is continued with Maslow’s (1964) Religions, Values as a set of habits, behaviors, dogmas, forms, which legalistic and bureaucratic, conventional, empty, word, anti-religious. The mystic experience, the along with the charismatic seer who started the or transformed into their opposites. Organised remajor enem(y) of the religious experience and the with and foreshadow the development of spiritutwenty-first centuries (see Heelas and Woodhead promotes the fostering of positive feelings and expecontrast with religiosity which promotes collectively rulings about thought, speech and behaviour as

a number of social scientists have observed that positive mental health benefits. ritual, worship and prayer affirm faith and invoke the individual is unable to control the everyday and uncertainty and offer structures for emotional 1996; Hinde 1999; Pruyser 1968), create meaning and overcome ambivalence and ambiguity (Erikforms of communication, binding people together, sense of community. Other suggestions include on cross-cultural evidence that ritual may limit effects and its potential to create emotional dissuggests that rituals assist those engaged in them in and restoring psychic and social equilibrium. The many religious traditions is recognised as an effec(Pennebaker 1997). the “aim” of rituals is to connect to the sacred; for psychological “benefits” are of secondary importance. ritual (e.g. Pargament 1997; Koenig et al. 2012) conRitual is one of the so-called positive methods in positive mental health outcomes for individuals

growth of interest in understanding human beand experiential perspectives. We have been and customs using this approach, looking at expe-

Observance

here, Sabbath-observant Jews were interviewed. vary between groups and individuals, but for all, the weekly day of rest and observance in Judaism

56 as prescribed in the fourth commandment. 57 before sunset and is a time for contemplation, 58 on family gathering through the Sabbath 59 is a precious gift from G-d, a day of great 60 a time when one can set aside all weekday 61 pursuits rather than a day of restrictions. 62 Shabbat is described as a bride or queen, 63 Dodi Likrat Kallah (come, my beloved, to The study used qualitative analysis, 65 (13) was guided by the aim of achieving 66 power considerations; e.g. Elliott et al. 67 criteria for inclusion were that participants 68 self-defined as Sabbath-observant. Nine 69 New York; there were seven men and six 70 six single and two widowed. The age 71 were offered the options of face-to-face 72 ferred, by telephone or written responses 73 conducted by a male interviewer and five 74 semi-structured and lasted approximately 75 (a) Age, sex, occupation. 76 (b) How long have you been an observant 77 (c) Tell me about your experience of 78 (d) Describe a “typical” Sabbath. What 79 (e) In what ways does the Sabbath differ 80 (f) Do you feel differently during the what way(s)? 82 (g) Do you feel the Sabbath has benefits 83 (h) Does the Sabbath influence your 84 (i) What aspects of observing the Sabbath 85 (j) Are there any negative effects of 86 We used thematic analysis, using the 87 ommended by Elliott et al. (1999). Three 88 Loewenthal 2013). In the quotes that 89 Shabbos as preferred and used by most 90 1. Shabbos is different from other days includes not doing weekday work, or transport and other mundane activities. offers not only rest and relaxation, but spirituality and the opportunity to free from their daily worries and 96 Shabbos is a safe haven. We step away from our 97 One is innately aware of an elevated atmosphere.

It is ushered in by lighting candles just study and prayer with an emphasis meals. For those who observe it, Shabbat joy eagerly awaited throughout the week, concerns and devote oneself to higher In Jewish literature, poetry and music, as in the popular Shabbat hymn Lecha meet the [Sabbath] bride). and the number of participants recruited conceptual saturation (not by statistical 1999). A purposive sample was recruited; should be adult (over 18), Jewish and were recruited in London, UK, and four in women, of whom five were now married, range was 20–81 (mean 44.2). Participants interviews (chosen by seven) or, if pre(chosen by six). Eight interviews were by a female interviewer. Interviews were 1 h. We asked:

Jew? observing the Sabbath. do you do? from the other days of the week? Sabbath compared to the other weekdays? In

for your wellbeing? What are these? relationship with other people? How? make you feel good? observing the Sabbath? procedures for establishing reliability recbroad themes were identified (Dein and follow, we use the Ashkenazi pronunciation interviewees. The themes were: of the week. The observance of Shabbos handling money, using telephone, computing The research participants said that this a powerful sense of freedom, enhanced reflect on ultimate values. Most people felt preoccupations, and mood is better. worries and involvement with worldly activities.

Shabbos is different from other days of 99 world. I shut down electronically. It’s a spiritual 100 week, take a step back from the roles of real Shabbos seems to have an elevating effect. 102 warm atmosphere in the home and at Shul…. Shabbos is a completely different experience 104 vides a weekly focus and important things in 105 to deal with daily stresses and strains and with 106 taught that we are obligated to feel happy on 107 many to list here but just separating oneself 108 believe the break has health and constitutional 109 into perspective. Shabbos is different on other days of the 111 need to worry about errands, there is nothing 112 you should enjoy it. The pressure is off, you 113 can help you through any troubles you might I feel more relaxed. I do not worry about 115 world is back. If you forget to do something 116 ries are irrelevant. I feel at peace with myself and the creator 118 Shabbos. However, the release from weekday effects for some. A vacuum was created and it can be difficult to deal with the 122 If you forget to do something there is nothing 123 evant. Sometimes because you cannot do 124 distracted by electronics you have more time to On Friday nights it can be more challenging 126 one may be dealing with (although) usually 127 much and a break is a very healthy one.

2. Shabbos preparation fills the week. The idea of Shabbos was present during normally with pleasure and relief, and times spiritual preparations were to be 132 I suppose in a way Shabbos really starts on a 133 Wednesday) at the end we add “add on” a couple 134 to be the opening verses of Kabbolas Shabbos 135 ning. This sort of gives us an impression or 136 approaching. Then we carry on with Wednesday, It takes the focus of the whole week, though 138 day concerns. But each day I do a bit for Shabbos, 139 much of a last minute rush. I look forward to Shabbos to get away from 141 Stressed out week, cannot wait for Shabbos. 3. Deepening relationships. The freedom from work and weekday friends gave the opportunity to improve social relationships.

the week. I completely unplug from the rest of the day. I focus on what matters most, reflect on the life. Spend time with family and friends. Also the community comes together so there is a On Shabbos one feels positive in general. to every other working day of the week. It prolife and not on the ephemeral. One does not have the difficulties that throws up every day. We are Shabbos. Of course it has tremendous benefits. Too from every day PROOF serious issues and deadlines I do benefits. For me it helps to put the passage of life week. I act differently, dress differently. You do not you can do about them on Shabbos. It is Shabbos, do not have to perform to the world. People at Shul be having. school work. When it is over the chaos of the real there is nothing you can do on Shabbos so your woron Shabbos. As I developed individually, so did my

concerns and activities produced paradoxical into which worries and concern can rush, inability to take action. you can do on Shabbos so your worries are irrelanything about them. However, since you cannot get think about things so bad thoughts tend to escalate. set aside in one’s mind whatever serious concerns by Shabbos day it is easier not to focus on them so

the week—something to be anticipated, as something for which practical and somemade well in advance, often on a daily basis. Wednesday morning. In the psalm of the day 94 (for of verses from the next psalm 95 which happen which we say as a Shabbos begins on Friday evehint we are counting down to Shabbos which is fast Thursday…. often (it’s in the) background, submerged by weekshopping, baking, cooking, so that it is not too things just when bored your mind tends to wander.

commitments and meals with family and/or and deepen the quality of family and other

146 I have made lots of friends in Shabbos. We interact more 147 in the week. Also the nature of the interaction is different 148 achieve physical and operational goals “did you buy 149 communicate and discuss where we are in life and stock There is a feeling of wellbeing gathering. The family 151 The kids come from school excited asking “when is 152 drawings, stories, divrei torah (stories, parables and other 153 sources). I learn with them on Shabbos. I can finally talk to people for hours on end without 155 week, which normally get in the way. It allows us to speak without technology blocking our It is time to share with one’s family, children, friends, 158 are no phone calls, e-mails, daily grind. It helps one to 159 ity so I would hope with help one to be better, kinder and

Problems Observing Shabbos Three of those interviewed noted specific problems in a relatively tolerant multicultural society. These work on Friday in time to reach home well before having to leave work very early. Communication be difficult. 166 The only negative effects observing Shabbos—it is a 167 cially in the work place. I used to explain to colleagues about not being able 169 work on Friday afternoon and in winter etc. I have always 170 are respectful and understanding. I have always tried not 171 tried to pull my weight, do my fair share of work, making 172 necessary working through some or even all of Saturday

Our Conclusions About Ritual from

Goldberg (1986) concluded that the Sabbath is template, withdrawal and rest from mundane These aspects can potentially improve feelings are in agreement with Goldberg’s, indicating that our evidence—affected the experiences of Sabbath It did not appear that Sabbath observance the process that Freud suggested, namely, that observed because failure to do so would result in ings may play a role, our research participants enced are positive: pleasant, eager anticipation awareness and deepened interpersonal relationships.

with friends and family on Shabbos than in that in the week—often we speak to laundry detergent?” On Shabbos we actually take. sit down, talk together, sing and enjoy. Shabbos?” They bring things from school: material based on biblical and rabbinic the usual hustle and bustle of the work pathway. and to enjoy the company of guests. There remember the inevitability of one’s mortalmore tolerant person.

with Shabbos observance, even were related to the need to leave sunset. In winter this can mean with managers and colleagues can

little challenging to explain to others espeto teach or attend meetings, or do other been fortunate in having colleagues who to exploit their good nature and always sure I do some of the horrible chores, if night.

the Sabbath Study

a special day, offering time to conconcerns and deepening relationships. of mental wellbeing. Our findings the 30-year interval has not—on observance. was driven solely or even at all by observance involves a set of habits anxiety and guilt. While these feelindicated that the motivations experiin preparation, heightened spiritual

Maslow’s concern that ritual observance 186 ence is not confirmed by our evidence. Contrary 187 widespread reports that during the Sabbath, 188 and electronic distractions and one is able 189 found issues: the nature of the divine, for The weekly work-free day has been AQ3 191 slavery and in some totalitarian regimes, 192 ished. In secularised countries, the work-free 193 nuded of its spiritual significance, and often 194 family togetherness difficult or impossible, 195 of different workers and work places. We 196 vestigial form is a humane institution, and 197 retain integrity as a time of existential and 198 relationships.

Second Study: Head Covering by 200 In this study, we examined a different aspect 201 at how a particular aspect of dress codes 202 and development of religious identity. We 203 Islam and Judaism. Other religious traditions 204 of modesty, including head covering, but we 205 of women in two religious traditions. As we started the study, we took the 207 would focus on two potentially important 208 1. Identity 209 Views on the development of religious identity 210 religious conversion—whether individuals 211 of origin or shifted their religious identity and AQ4 212 or gradually (e.g. Scobie 1975). Later work 213 motifs; Lofland and Skonovd 1981), moved 214 development (Day 1993; Fowler 1981) and 215 describing religious change (e.g. Staples and 216 tial theories are social identity theory (SIT; 217 development (1966) of Eriksen’s view of 218 identity based on group membership and 219 posals (and the work which followed) have 220 idea that identity development is the outcome 221 negligible attention to the notion of lifelong 222 but contain important features. This study drew on Breakwell’s (1986, 224 sees identity as a dynamic process, involving 225 tion of and accommodation to the social would inhibit or stifle spiritual experito Maslow’s suggestion, there were one’s mind is free of weekday concerns to contemplate, study and discuss proexample, or the purpose of existence. adopted in many cultures and religions. In the work-free day has often been abolday clings on in tattered form, deonly available in a manner that makes for example, by varying the free days suggest that the work-free day even in its with religious customs and rituals it can spiritual refreshment and deepening of

Women

of ritual—dress codes—and we looked functioned for women in the expression focused on women’s head covering in also have dress codes and standards confined ourselves to the experiences

decision that our theoretical perspectives aspects:

have shifted. Early work looked at remained in the religion of their family whether this shift happened suddenly recognised the complexity of themes (or towards the view of continual lifelong also attributed importance to acts of Mauss 1987). Two early and influenTajfel and Turner 1986) and Marcia’s identity. SIT has been concerned with intergroup relations, while Marcia’s prorested heavily on the Eriksonian (1963) of adolescence. These theories give process in the development of identity,

2010) identity process theory (IPT) which constant self-monitoring and assimilacontext. Identity involves structured, hierTable 8.1 Acculturation strategies. Importance of Importance of relationships with High wider society Low

226 archical content, with elements 227 appended to elements. The content 228 memberships, roles, etc.) and 229 social context can call forth 230 and involvement, amount of change 231 sidered to be. An important feature 232 to esteem, efficacy, distinctiveness 233 to diminish threat may be of any 234 2. Acculturation strategies 235 We also found Berry’s (1997) 236 in understanding the importance 237 regation result from a positively 238 marginalisation from unvalued Clothing has been said to play 240 tity. There is some sociological 241 Brown 2002; Boswell 2005) but

Methods

243 This work focused on the issues 244 for Muslim and Jewish women. 245 scribed, with the focus on head Translated (mainly Internet) 247 ish law) on modest dress are used 248 women wrestle with decisions Descriptions of women’s 250 drawn from open-ended 251 two from previous projects), 252 turating communities in the UK. 253 were with women. In the Jewish 254 as a participant in the community. 255 in Saudi Arabia (thanks to Lamis 256 Peek’s (2005) study of Muslim 257 material. Belzen (2010) in Towards 258 hermeneutical approach involving

(Based on Fig. 1, Acculturation strategies, in Berry 1997) own-group identity and values High Low Integration Assimilation Separation/segregation Marginalisation

varying in centrality and salience and with values of identity includes PROOF both social elements (group individual elements (values, beliefs, etc.). Changes in changes in identity, depending on personal relevance demanded and how negative the change is conof IPT is the notion of threat to identity—threats or continuity will trigger coping, and responses kind.

suggestions about acculturation strategies helpful of political/historical factors: integration and segvalued own-group identity and assimilation and own-group identity (Table 8.1). a major role in the expression of religious idenand anthropological literature (e.g. Humphreys and negligible social psychology.

surrounding dress codes regarding head covering First, these dress codes and their variations are decovering. sources of Sharia (Islamic law) and Halacha (Jewto set the context of religious rulings in which about head covering. attitudes to, and experiences of, head covering are questionnaires ( n = 6), semi-structured interviews ( n = 5; conversations and observations, mainly in small acculAll questionnaires, interviews and conversations community, observations and conversations were Among the Muslims, some material was gathered Al Sulaim) and in conversations with friends. women in the USA was also used as a source of a Cultural Psychology of Religion argues for a a wide range of sources, as used here.

Some Religious Rulings on Head Covering:

260 A hijab or ḥijābis a veil which covers the hair. It 261 larly in front of non-related adult males. AQ5 262 According to Islamic scholarship, hijab is 263 privacy and morality. The Qu’ran mentions the AQ6 264 the words khimār ( رامخ ) and jilbab ( بابلج , not 265 definition is metaphysical, where al-hijab refers 266 the world from God”. Hijab is required on women in public in countries 268 but is banned in schools in France, Turkey and 269 hijab is left for individuals to decide in most of The term hijab or veil is not used in the Qur’an 271 for women or men, rather it refers to a spatial 272 vacy. The Qur’an instructs the male believers 273 Muhammad behind a hijab. This hijab was the 274 the wives of Prophet Muhammad. However, in 275 tion, specific to the wives of Prophet Muhammad, 276 segregation of Muslim men and women. The 277 men’s and women’s gaze, gait, garments and 278 involves khumūr over the necklines and jilbab 279 be identified and not harmed. Guidelines for 280 for the hands, the feet and the face are found in 281 developed later. 282 Judaism The Talmud in Tractate Ketubot states 283 not appear in public with their hair uncovered. 284 biblical law, and a verse from the Torah is cited Two levels of obligatory hair covering are 286 tial covering. Partial coverage of the hair fulfils 287 Moshe” or the “Law of Moses”. This level is the 288 to in the Bible. Complete coverage of the hair, 289 is still necessary in order to satisfy the requirements 290 deemed proper for a Jewish woman” (Ask the Sheitel ( לטייש ) is the Yiddish word for a wig 292 married women in order to conform to the 293 hair. This practice is part of the modesty-related The Shulchan Aruch (code of Jewish law) 295 Boaz ben Simon Baruch that wearing of wigs is In some Hasidic sects, sheitels are avoided as 297 the wearer’s head is uncovered. In other groups, 298 over the sheitel to avoid this misconception. In 299 Rebbe encouraged all married Jewish women to 300 that if they were to exert a benign influence in

Islam

is worn by Muslim women particu-

given the wider meaning of modesty, use of covering and veiling with hijab), respectively. Still another to “the PROOF veil which separates man or such as Iran and Saudi Arabia, formerly also in Tunisia. Wearing a the world. to refer to an article of clothing curtain that divides or provides pri(Muslims) to talk to wives of Prophet responsibility of the men and not later Muslim societies this instrucwas generalised, leading to the modesty in Qur’an concerns both genitalia. The clothing for women (cloaks) in public so that they may covering of the entire body except texts of Figh and Hadith that are

that married Jewish women may This prohibition is described as a to substantiate it. then delineated: complete and parthe more basic standard of “Dat one that the Rabbis say is alluded though not mentioned in the Torah, of Dat Yehudit or “conduct Rabbi 12.7.12). worn by some Orthodox Jewish requirement of Jewish law to cover their dress standard called tzniut. cites the opinion of Rabbi Joshua a permitted form of hair covering. they can give the impression that women wear some type of covering significant contrast, the Lubavitcher wear only sheitels. He suggested society as communal leaders, profes301 sionals and the like, they would create a good 302 in the form of a sheitel. Most orthodox married women (especially 304 ligious do not wear wigs because their rabbis 305 modest and that other head coverings, such 306 (Wikipedia 12.07.2012). Many/most married orthodox women will 308 as in public).

Studies of Religious Change in Relation

310 There have been some (social-scientific) studies 311 Islam (e.g. Peek 2005) and Judaism (e.g. In both faith traditions, women report head/hair 313 the sense of identity and strong feelings. The decision to cover the head/hair is seen 315 of identity. We now describe some important themes 317 covering and the decisions surrounding it. 318 1. Historical and political factors 319 Several women highlighted the importance of 320 textualising their decisions to adopt religious 321 taken as a deliberate and potentially risky way Before World War II, My grandmother in Germany wore a sheitel (wig). camp, was (very exceptionally) rescued, became a sheitels). Some years after the war it became possible available). When she put on a sheitel (again) we the identity for which she had suffered so much). 328 In Stalinist Russia, My father was sent to Siberia for teaching Judaism. bours became suspicious we had to move to a different on the door (from the KGB)…after the war, I left provincial city where my husband was a Rabbi, the He explained: “Here you can be modern, you don’t wear a wig (sheitel).” I told him my family’s history, person, a justice of the peace, but if Stalin could can.” (Jewish) 337 After 9/11, “…my mum wants me to take my headscarf off going to hurt me.” The students said that at this declare their Muslim identities and faith in

impression if their hair covering was

Sephardim) and Israeli National Rebelieve that wigs are insufficiently as a hat or tichel, are more suitable

cover their hair in the home (as well to Head Covering

describing religious change in both Loewenthal 1988). covering as a hot topic, involving Political/historical factors are important. as a major reflection and determinant

in women’s own experiences of head

the political-historical factors conhead covering. Often the decision was of asserting spiritual identity.

During the war she was in concentration refugee, and there were no facilities (for for her to wear a sheitel (they became were all very proud of her (for asserting (Jewish)

We kept Judaism, every time the neighcity. We trembled to hear the knock Russia, I was married and living in a synagogue president came to visit me. have be oppressed, you don’t have to and told him: “You are an important not make me behave, I don’t think you

because she’s terrified that someone is time it was more important than ever to Islam…another girl saw that some of the girls were afraid to wear their hijab, but she said have strength.” (Muslim; from Peek 2005) Sometimes, however, the decision may In some countries the reason is that it is the ply do not think whether they want to wear

2. Spirituality/religious ruling For both Jews and Muslims, head/hair mandment. To disobey would be wrong, spiritual/mystical aspects. It is a requirement in Jewish Law as set out

Appreciating the mystical significance & have. (Jewish)

Wearing hijab can imply that one is representing 354 Islamic rules in all aspects of life. (Muslim) (Wearing Hijab makes one) “more aware more practicing as a Muslim in many other

3. Relations with men The message here is that head covering both Jewish and Muslim women a sense tion, and in Judaism, where hair covering a closeness to the husband. To create a unique intimacy and the deepest

By keeping such a crucial aspect of a woman’s husband is a key tool in building their whole

It helps create a kind of wall around the

Provides a sense of privacy, modesty and trol how much man can see them or cannot,

To be modest in dress. Women, more than be wearing hijab because they don’t want to worry about at a time when women are hijab you are less aware of trying to look clothes. (Muslim)

4. Identity Head/hair covering is a key feature of ones distinct difference from the surrounding

“We have to keep our identity…fear G-d and

have strong pragmatic elements. only (legally) acceptable dress code; girls simit (Hijab) or not. (Muslim) covering is understood to be a religious comgoing against religious law, and there are

in the Torah. (Jewish)

tremendous benefits that such self-control can

Islam, which means that one is abiding by

of God on a daily basis and hopefully become ways.” (Muslim)

and other aspects of modest dressing give that they are safe from masculine attenis done at marriage, hair covering builds

bond with one’s husband. (Jewish)

whole persona for the unique benefit of her relationship, trust & bond over time. (Jewish)

holiness of marriage. (Jewish)

morality and also women wearing hijab can conso that they feel protected. (Muslim)

men, are judged by their looks so they might to be judged by their looks. It’s one less thing obsessed with looks and image, when you wear “right” all the time with the perfect hair and

identity expression and is seen as indicating society.

It is also a good example to one’s children as to how different ethics and code from others in society. (Jewish)

When I got married, it wasn’t really a question—it was (Jewish)

Asserting her Islamic identity, and wanting to be faiths. (Muslim)

To make Muslim women distinguishable from others.

Conclusions About Head Covering

Women’s decisions about the ways in which they crucial in the development of adult religious identity. embedded in decisions about relations to the host and the salience of religious identity. Community as do exhortations by religious leadership and causal connections between modest dress including From the experiential perspective, the notion ful—women see their decisions about head covering and spiritual identity development. Head covering expressions of identity, but as ways managing of not seen as a solely inner process, but one in which case with respect to dress—exert an influence psychologists. Head/hair covering may be a feature valued by culturation strategy: Close relations with members while own-group identity, values and relationships seen as creating barriers: In religious, academic and popular discourses the hijab become over-signified as symbols of Muslim women’s modesty represent the ironies, contradictions and delicate constantly undertake. In most contexts, their visibility their work. (Aune et al. 2013) The adoption of a sheitel (wig) rather than a more may be a symptom of an integrationist strategy, in the host culture are valued, as well as own-group The less noticeable wig may not create the “barrier” a cloth head covering. Acculturation strategy has important implications and what is regarded as a threat. From the IPT amples of the role played by head/hair covering in decision about covering may throw up further

we are a different people and have

my Jewish identity, in my family.

distinguishable from people from other (Muslim)

cover their heads are reported as Head-covering decisions are culture, acculturation strategies norms and family play a role, peers, especially in ascribing close head covering and spirituality. of development is clearly useas key features of personal and dress are seen not only as identity. Spiritual growth is thus behaviour and ritual—in this deserving more attention from social

those following a separatist acof wider society are not valued, are important. Hijab has been

and other “modesty issues” have identity…a focus on clothing and negotiations that Muslim women enhances and hinders the impact of

noticeable cloth head covering which relations with members of identity, values and relationships. understood by the wearing of

for decisions about identity perspective, we can see several exresponding to identity threat. The challenges and changes.

Head covering for women in Islam and 416 women in both religions. It appears to be a 417 parently closely linked to profound issues 418 and spirituality. Overall, what women have to say about 420 suggestion that this is a ritual driven by

Final Conclusion

422 We opened this chapter by asking whether 423 or driven by anxiety and the need to reduce These early twentieth-century suggestions 425 tory view of ritual. The two rituals we have investigated do 427 its for those who carry them out or driven by Sabbath observance involves spiritual 429 and a deepening of personal relationships. 430 about identity, carries major spiritual 431 crucial features of the relations between Combining these conclusions, we see the 433 ity, the sense of identity and meaning in life 434 forms and levels of social relationships. There is more to be done in examining a 436 will broaden and deepen the understanding 437 may be helpful in a wide range of contexts.

438 Acknowledgements We would like to thank the 439 generous financial support of the research in the 440 University Stern School of Business) for conducting 441 generously conducted interviews on some Muslim 442 all the research participants for their time and for 443 reported more fully in Dein and Loewenthal (2013), 444 Loewenthal (2012).